Summary and Conclusions
The many geophysical and geological paradoxes that have accumulated during the past two or three decades are apparently the consequences of forcing observational data into an inadequate tectonic model
(Storetvedt 1992).
Carey (1958) demonstrated, on a globe representing the Earth's modern dimensions, that if the continents were reassembled into the Pangaean configuration the fit was reasonably precise at the centre of the reassembly, and along the common margins of northwest Africa and the United States east coast embayment, however became progressively imperfect away from these areas. Carey concluded from this research that the fit of the Pangaean reassembly could be made much more precise in these areas if the diameter of the Earth were assumed to have been smaller at the time of Pangaea.
Early model makers such as Hilgenberg (1933), Barnett (1962, 1969), and Vogel (1983, 1984, 1990) in particular, demonstrated empirically, through use of small Earth models, that the Pangaean continental reassemblage could be fitted together at a reduced Earth radius of between 55 to 60% of the present radius, to form a closed crust. Vogel (1983) concluded that, the Earth has therefore expanded exponentially with time from this early Pangaean configuration to the present, with continental separation caused by a "radial expansion" of the Earth.
In order to accurately quantify any variation in the Earth's palaeoradius, and constrain plate configuration with time it was argued that, it is necessary to take into account the area and pattern of oceanic lithospheric generation as portrayed in maps such as Larson et al (1985) and CGMW & UNESCO (1990).
By using the method of least squares to calculate gradients of curves of best fit from the cumulative empirical oceanic and continental surface area data, it was concluded that the goodness of fit is best described by an exponential curve of best fit. Palaeoradius was then determined and an equation for the exponential increase in palaeoradius of the Earth from the Archaean to the Present was therefore established as:
|
Ra = (R0 - Rp)ekt + Rp |
Where: Ra = ancient palaeoradius of the Earth, R0 = present radius of the Earth, Rp = primordial Earth radius = approx. 1700 km, e = exponential, t = time before present (negative), k = a constant = 4.5366 x 10-9/yr
This equation, assuming the assumptions used to derive the equation are correct, was considered to be the "fundamental equation" for Global Expansion Tectonics, enabling the kinematics of an Earth undergoing an exponential expansion, from the Archaean to the Present, to be readily determined. Modeling the kinematics of Earth expansion suggested that the controlling influence on Earth expansion may not be a result of a secular increase in mass with time, as suggested by Carey (1983a). The cause of Earth expansion was considered however to being intimately related to a cosmological expansion of the Universe.
Very low rates of expansion during the pre-Early Jurassic were demonstrated to agree well with Glikson's (1980) conclusions of a prolonged period of widespread tensional taphrogenesis during the Archaean and Proterozoic, with intense thermal and ductile activity during the Proterozoic mobile belt phase, prior to onset of intrasialic rifting, crustal thinning and development of modern oceans and "geosynclinal" sedimentation during the Palaeozoic.
To test Global Expansion Tectonics and, in particular, the mathematical parameters developed from the empirical sea floor magnetic isochron data, spherical small Earth models were constructed. These models indicated that, if the Earth has expanded exponentially since the at least the Early Jurassic, in accordance with the derived mathematical expression for exponential palaeoradius, then small Earth reconstructions coincide fully with the spreading and geological fit data.
This coincidence applied not only to the passive margin oceans, where conventional reconstructions agree in principle, but also to the Pacific Ocean whereby the necessity for subduction of all or part of, the oceanic lithosphere generated at spreading ridges was refuted.
Relief of curvature and orogenesis on an exponentially expanding Earth, although thoroughly covered by Rickard (1969), Carey (1975, 1976, 1983a, 1986) and Glikson (1979), is still very much in its infancy, compared to the voluminous coverage of plate tectonics Earth dynamic processes. The onset of orogenesis became marked during the Early to Mid Phanerozoic as continental lithosphere fragmented and dispersed under the action of accelerating increase in surface area and isostatic crustal equilibration to the changing surface curvature. Both Rickard (1969) and Carey (1975, 1976, 1983a, 1986) put forward models for orogenesis and geosynclinal development, under conditions of surface curvature readjustment, and demonstrated that continental collision may not be required to promote orogenesis as is required in conventional plate tectonics.
The magnitude of horizontal foreshortening during isostatic equilibration of the surface curvature however, effectively demonstrated the potential for tangentially directed compression acting within a continental plate during exponential expansion of the Earth. This suggested a prime mechanism for orogenesis during Earth expansion.
The nature of mantle fluids, and mantle metasomatism, although briefly touched on, indicated, within the limitations of experimental constraints, that mantle devolatilization of the volatile species in the system C-O-H-S can exist in the Earth's mantle. It was suggested that retention of these species within the mantle was made possible by the high P-T-g conditions prevailing during the Precambrian, due to the much reduced Earth radius, and that devolatilization to form the hydrosphere and atmosphere was a progressive and possibly accelerating process of outgassing of the mantle with time, as a direct consequence of the reduction of P-T-g conditions.
The implications of the application of the modified dipole equations to palaeomagnetism was such that every palaeopole position determined to date, using the existing conventional dipole equation is potentially wrong, and conclusions drawn from the interpretations of these pole positions, such as apparent polar wander paths, are therefore misleading.
It is concluded that, Global Expansion Tectonics provides the necessary "motor and mechanism" for Earth expansion, which enables the dynamic principles behind all major geologic phenomena to be resolved and readily explained.
Links to Fellow Expansionists
For additional information on specific topics the following web sites are recommended. If you feel you have something to contribute, and would like to be included on this list, please feel free to contact TERRELLA CONSULTANTS.
The "other" theory of geology and global tectonics - by David Ford
A comprehensive coverage of Professor S.W. Carey's latest book; Earth,
Universe, Cosmos (1996), plus links and comments on his earlier books.Animated Global Expansion Tectonic models - by David Ford
Animations of globes featured within this webpage plus plate tectonic
reconstruction of Scotese et al (1988) for comparison.Plate Tectonics is Expansion Tectonics - by Karl W Luckert
An early version of Earth expansion including an early, pre-oceanic
database, reconstruction and link to video animation.In the field of the planetary Sciences - by John K Harms
Citing evidence for planetary expansion from planets and moons
within our solar system, in support of Earth expansion.
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