II - MECHANICS OF THE GREAT DELUGE


The earth is a freely suspended oblate spheroid. It spins on its axis, which is slanted 23 2T in relation to its orbit, and it makes a complete revolution every 24 hours. It moves around the sun and completes its orbit in a little more than 365 days. It has seven motions. Its four major motions are:

• Rotation on its Axis of Figure, daily.

• Revolution about the sun, yearly.

• Careenings at irregular recurrent intervals.

Travel through space, with the whole solar system.

Its three minor motions are:

• Precession a slow motion of the Axis of Spin in a cycle of time of about 26,000 years.

• Nutations or noddings, which are slight, recurrent, variable, irregular motions during its precession.

• Wobbling, which is a rotary off center motion of the Pole of Figure around the Pole of Spin in a time cycle of about fourteen months.

The true axis of the earth is called the Axis of Spin; it can be considered as a line in space moving sideways in celestial space with the whole solar system. It coincides approximately with a line drawn from the North Star of the northern hemisphere to the Southern Cross in the skies of the southern hemisphere.

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The Axis of Figure, on the other hand, is not permanent, but varies with each successive epoch of time. It is an imaginary line drawn through the center of the earth at its shortest diameter, and is determined by the location where the bulge of the earth happens to develop for any one epoch. This Axis is always farthest from the center of the bulge.

The two points where this axis meets the earth’s surface are called the Poles of Figure. They are the North and South Poles of our geographical maps. This axis is not fixed in the same sense that the Axis of Spin is fixed in space. It is a geographical axis changing with each successive epoch. The areas of the earth surrounding the poles become centers for great snow and ice accumulation during each epoch of time because of constant snowfall and lack of sun heat.

At the beginning of each epoch the Axis of Figure and the Axis of Spin coincide. At the end of each epoch they have become separated because the liquid materials which comprise most of the upper surface layers of the earth, have been redistributed. Great volumes of water are slowly withdrawn by evaporation from oceans and rivers, are precipitated as snow, and are solidified as ice at the poles.

In a telescope rigidly set and pointed at a fixed star we will see that the star sweeps by once in every ` 4 hours, due to the rotation of the earth. It has also been discovered that the star rises and falls in the telescope sight. The earth and the telescope have been found to be rocking slowly up and down.

The motion of a badly thrown iron quoit gives an exaggerated idea of the earth’s wobble. A point on the Equator may be thought of in terms of the iron quoit, and that point is found to be rocking north and south through a variable range. The maximum has not yet exceeded 50 feet, and the time period of the motion is about fourteen months. The true latitude of any point on the earth’s surface varies to that extent. The well known wobbling motion of a spinning top before it falls over on its side helps us to visualize the wobble of the earth.

Observatory records of the rocking motion of the earth are being kept continuously, at a number of different points on the surface of the earth but in approximately the same latitude. When the individual observations are grouped together it is found that the earth’s poles are wandering in a circular motion.

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The variations in the distance between the Pole of Figure and the Pole of Spin have been plotted on the assumption that the Pole of Spin remains in a fixed position. These observations show that the Pole of Figure is traveling around the Pole of Spin. The Pole of Figure moves from one side of the rotation pole to the other side, or, during some periods, completes its entire circular motion on one side of the Pole of Spin.

The observed motion of the earth’s Pole of Figure in a period of no more than a few years has been charted. More recent graphs of the wandering of the Pole of Figure indicate that its circular motions have been completed entirely to one side of the Pole of Spin; this appears to indicate nutations in the wandering of the Pole of Spin as well as of the Pole of Figure.

The wanderings of the earth’s poles prove that the whole earth wobbles: the wobbling (For the cause of the wobble, see page 190, Part II "The Drag of Gravity.") has the same effect on any point on the surface of the globe as it has on the Pole of Figure.

The discovery of the continuous wobble of the earth completely undermined and disproved a previously prevailing theory that any relatively rapid change in the position of the earth’s Axis of Figure was impossible, the reason being the earth’s tremendous gyroscopic energy of rotation. The wobble of the earth results in a wandering of the Pole of Figure, the center of gyration of the successive polar ice caps. The linear speed of the ice caps increases at about 6.28 (27rr) times their distance from the Axis of Spin; the total energy of motion and the throw of centrifugal force of the ice caps both increase proportionally with the weight of the ice mass that is off center and at a rate which is the square of its velocity. The speed of travel is a function both of the rotation and the wobble of the earth. At the present time the speed of travel due to the wobble of the earth is extremely slow, less than 13 feet per hour, because its distance off center is estimated not to exceed 50 feet. Nevertheless, as the ice cap grows in size the wobble of the earth imparts to it a greater and greater linear motion which is mirrored in an increased centrifugal force, and this in turn tends to provide greater inertia.

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These huge and transient weights at the poles develop a strong "throw" due to their eccentric centrifugal force of rotation, which overcomes the resistance to shear off the earth’s materials causing earthquakes and the forced migration of the weights to rotate under the sun of the heavens, instead of under the North Star and the Southern Cross.

We say that they have moved to near the Equator, but the Equator must be thought of as a theoretical line of latitude with respect to the sun, and not as a line fixed on the earth. Any circumference of the earth’s surface would be at the Equator if it rotated farthest away from the center of spin.

We must also remember that the bulge of the earth about the Equator has no respect nor attachment for any particular continental land areas. Africa and South America happen, at the present time, to be parts of the bulge. This is a temporary condition, limited to our present epoch. During the preceding epoch Africa was at the North Pole and South America and North America lay in tandem along the Equator. A single careen of the globe accounts for that change.

The globe reels or careens, but it continues its rotation uninterruptedly on a new axis in the same way that a billiard ball, which has rebounded from a table’s cushion, continues to rotate but on a different axis.

When we compare the energy of the eccentric throw of the ice caps when rotating off center with the energy stored in the rotating bulge of the earth, we must first realize that the bulge of the earth is not a rigid, solid ring, like the revolving element of a gyroscope, but that it is made up of yielding earth materials of rock and dirt that are relatively plastic when compared with the forces acting upon them. The bulge rearranges its elements and accommodates itself to these forces.

It is readily apparent that the energy stored in the rotating bulge of the earth is many thousand times greater than the energy of the eccentric centrifugal force or throw of the ice caps when rotating off center. Many persons appear to have misapplied this equation of forces in trying to prove that careenings of the globe are unthinkable and chimerical. Their error is one often made in nonanalytical studies. They have misapplied their mathematics by starting with the false premise that the bulge of the earth is rigid and solid, like a commercial gyroscope. The fact is that the earth changes the arrangements of its individual parts, including the elements that make up the bulge, when the earth’s Axis of Figure moves away from the Axis of Spin.

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The location of the bulge of the earth is fixed by the Axis of Spin and not by the Axis of Figure. If the Axis of Figure, at the South Pole, with its surrounding ice cap is moved ten miles north from the Axis of Spin, the equatorial bulge would then change its latitude and move ten miles south, because it responds exclusively to its rotation on the Axis of Spin, which remains relatively fixed. Therefore, this would cause a very great rearrangement of the rock and dirt elements that constitute the present bulge.

In the second section of this book it will be shown that the globe is held in its place in the celestial universe by static electrical repulsion, and that it is rotated by the forces of radiant energy which emanate from the countless billions of suns which form a part of the universe. Dynamic electrical radiations cause the rotation of the earth and the phenomenon of the weight of materials, and static electrical repulsion fixes the earth in its position and causes the ocean tides. It is the incoming, bombarding radiations which cause the earth to have a true axis or Axis of Spin around which it rotates in a position and a manner determined by these external forces.

It is thus cosmic forces of extraterrestrial nature that cause the earth to rush through space, revolve around the sun, rotate on an axis, and wobble. The development of the theory of "The Drag of Gravity," discussed in Part II, has become a natural by product of the research required to establish the theory of the intermittent careenings of the globe and the recurrent cataclysms.

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The bulge of the earth has been created and is maintained by the external forces which rotate the earth and produce centrifugal force. Centrifugal force is the direct cause of the bulge, but this force is itself the product of the radiant energy of the external forces which impinge upon the surface of the earth. The bulge responds exclusively to these centrifugal and external forces and, therefore, it must always be centered very nearly along the line of the true Equator.

The centrifugal force which causes the bulge of the earth is a tremendous force, and yet it is relatively small compared to its opposing forces; otherwise the bulge would be much greater, since action and reaction are always equal and opposite in direction; and since the gravitational pressures from all sides are so very much greater than the tremendous centrifugal force which creates the bulge, the globe is nearly a perfect sphere.
 

(From The World Almanac 1957 quoting U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey)

Based on the above we find that:
 

From these figures it is seen that the earth, though technically an oblate spheroid, departs from being a perfect sphere by about ’66^th of 1 per cent. The earth’s diameter at the Equator, where the bulge is at a maximum, differs from the mean diameter by approximately .0017 miles too small a variation to show on a small school globe.

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The bulge of the earth thus represents a definite arrangement of the earth’s elements, adjusted automatically to definite centrifugal and gravitational forces, its general equilibrium being maintained by the yielding or flow of rock materials beneath the surface.

Were it not for its bulge the earth would be free to rotate about any axis or none. It would roll constantly; there would be no Axis of Figure. The extra weight of materials in the bulge establishes the earth transiently and precariously on a definite Axis of Figure.

The size of the bulge remains approximately constant throughout each successive epoch of time. But, during each epoch, ice caps continually grow at either or both poles. The bulge of the earth, then, can only temporarily ensure a dynamic equilibrium of the globe on its Axis of Spin; there is no alternative but for the ice caps to tip the earth over when they have grown too large for effective adjustments to be made through isostasy.

The opposing force which temporarily prevents the ice cap from starting toward the Equator is the stabilizing gyroscopic action of the earth’s bulge. This opposing force, F, is transmitted through the constituent earth materials; the amount of force transmitted is limited by the resistance to shearing of the upper stratified layers of rock and hardpan, F.

The earth can continue to rotate on any one axis only as long as resistance F1 is equal to or greater than force F. (Force F is a cotangent function of circularly rotating energy, expressed by

E = (0.5*(MV²)

where M is mass, V is velocity, and E is the energy developed.)

Referring once more to Fig. 1, the true axis, or Axis of Spin, and the true Equator are shown by solid lines. The North Pole, the South Pole, the Axis of Figure, and the actual Equator are shown by broken lines. The ice cap is assumed to be centered at the North Pole and its center of gyration is separated from the Axis of Spin by the distance R.

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Two equidistant weight elements of the ice cap may be likened to the two balls of the well known centrifugal "fly ball" governor. These rotate in a 24 hour period of time around the Axis of Figure. The "fly ball" at the left exerts a force which pulls the Axis of Figure toward the true axis. The one at the right is tending to pull the Axis of Figure away from the true axis and toward the true Equator.

The centrifugal pull of the two elemental "fly balls" is the same on both sides of the Axis of Figure, but on the true axis the ball at the right exerts a much greater pulling force away from it, because it is gyrating at a longer radius by an amount equal to R. Similarly, the ball at the left exerts a smaller pull toward the true axis than its pull on the Axis of Figure because it is gyrating around the true axis on a radius shorter by R.

The algebraic sum of the centrifugal forces of all of the equidistant pairs of weight elements, rotating on the Axis of Figure as a pivot at a distance R from the true axis, is the centrifugal force which tends to throw the ice cap away from the true axis and toward the true Equator.

The centrifugal force of that part of the ice mass which is rotating in a 24 hour period of time, and out of coincidence with the Axis of Spin by a distance R, corresponds to the combined forces of all of the individual weight elements, and this is the eccentric "throw" which tends to move the ice cap away from the Axis of Spin. Each time that distance R becomes great enough an entire ice cap starts moving toward the true Equator.

F, the total force for any mass of ice rotating eccentrically at any assumed radius of gyration R, can be readily calculated, but little is known about the force of cohesion of earth materials, F,, or how much resistance to shearing F1 offers to the imposed force F.

But we do know that there is some distance for R which is critical, beyond which it is unsafe for the eccentric ice mass to go. Thus whenever the eccentric weight of an ice cap rotated at a radius one foot greater than the critical or safe radius R, then the force F overcame the cohesion of earth materials represented by F,, and once that cohesion was overcome and broken down there was nothing to stop force F from increasing rapidly and wildly until the whole ice cap neared the true Equator and became a part of the equatorial bulge of the earth where it continued to pull eccentrically on the Axis of Spin but could not capsize the earth any further.

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By considering an ice cap as a great horizontally mounted flywheel, it is possible to compute the centrifugal pull created by its "off center" motion of rotation.
 

This force tends to disrupt one half of the wheel from the other half, and is resisted by the tensile strength of the flywheel rim.

In the case of that section of an ice cap which is rotating eccentrically about the Pole of Spin, its entire force tends to disrupt the earth which may be likened to the flywheel rim because the entire weight is gyrating like an unbalanced flywheel with all its weight concentrated at one point of the rim.

In the case of the eccentric elements of an ice cap, revolving once in 24 hours, or 1,440 minutes:

r   becomes 1/1440
F  then equals 0.000000000164WR.

On the basis of this equation, the centrifugal force of a mass of ice of any weight W, at any radius of gyration R, can be calculated.

Suppose that the Pole of Figure and the Pole of Spin happen to be in coincidence, and that the ice at the pole is two miles high. Then, let us describe a circle with the pole as its center and with a radius of 50 feet. We will then have a cylinder of ice with its center at the Pole of Spin and weighing 424,560,000 pounds approximately, the weight of ice being assumed to be 57.5 pounds per cubic foot.

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Now, let us suppose that the Pole of Figure and the center of the ice cylinder move, or wander, to a distance 50 feet from the Pole of Spin. Then the edge of the cylinder will be at the Pole of Spin and the whole ice cylinder will be rotating eccentrically "off center" around the Pole of Spin and along a circle with a 50 feet radius. The distance R will then be 50 feet and, on this basis of the above equation, the centrifugal force F will be about 39 pounds.

For cylinders of ice of larger diameters all assumed to be two miles high, and all assumed to wander from the Pole of Spin so that their edges are at the Pole of Spin and their centers at the Pole of Figure we get the following values for force F:
 

These figures indicate the force applied as a sidewise heave or pull to make the globe reel and careen. The actual heave is greater, because for each elemental ice section of the mass that has moved away from the Axis of Spin, an equal elemental ice section, on the opposite side, has moved the same distance closer to the Axis of Spin. The centrifugal force of the one elemental section moving away is increased, while that of the one moving nearer, and pulling in the opposite direction, is reduced. The actual sidewise heave is therefore greater than the magnitude of the "throw" or heave arrived at by the flywheel formula.

A flywheel of any kind, anywhere, rotating out of balance, is a signal of danger to any engineer.

When a rotating gyroscope is suspended in trunnions, so that it is free to move in any direction, and a force F is applied to it at any point, the effect of the force becomes apparent at 90 degrees of a circle from the point of pressure. The application of a force causes a motion of the whole gyroscope at right angles to the direction of motion of its rotating elements.

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To understand clearly what happens, consider yourself standing in space and that one element of the material at the Equator of the earth the size of a rifle bullet comes by you at a speed approximately 1,500 feet per second, and that you strike it on the side with a tack hammer as it passes by.

Due to the very great stored kinetic energy, or momentum, of the bullet you would not budge it, apparently, by the blow of the tack hammer; but you would deflect its course. You would change the direction of its motion. Instead of its motion continuing parallel to the Equator it would now travel at an angle to the Equator, but would continue around the earth in a great circle.

If we take a globe and fasten a string or rubber band around it at the Equator, that string will represent the path of the imaginary bullet. Now, if we deflect the angle of the string, as by the imaginary blow of the tack hammer, at the longitude of Greenwich, England, which is 0° and we then straighten out the entire string, at the new angle, it will describe a great circle around the earth at an angle to the Equator.

The original motion of the bullet was from west to east. Therefore, if the tack hammer is delivered from the south, the string will lie north of the Equator from 0° to 180° longitude, and then will cross the Equator and lie south of it from 180° longitude back to 0°. Its maximum distance from the Equator will be to the north at 90° E. longitude and to the south at 90° W. longitude.

The maximum effect of the force is seen to be produced at 90° of a circle away from the point of application. The force, which was comparatively small, did not move the gyroscope, but it did change the angle of one of its rotating elements.

By this visual demonstration the motion of a gyroscope at right angles to the applied force is made clear. Now, instead of one bullet, consider billions of billions of bullets, and we have the whole bulge of the earth represented by bullets moving at approximately 1,000 miles per hour, or about 1,500 feet per second.

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The pressures of the "off center" centrifugal force of the present Antarctic ice cap elements are apparently not being applied continuously at any one point of the gyroscopic energy of the rotating bulge of the earth, because the earth’s axis is known to be moving. The Pole of Figure is wandering in a circular motion which is changing the point of application of the "off center" centrifugal pressures; but a force applied continuously to a gyroscope will eventually bring about an appreciable change in the angle of direction of its motion.

The new order, signifying the next epoch, will begin after the careening and the cracking up have resulted in the equalization of the three forces:

1.   The centrifugal force of the rotating ice cap
2.   The centrifugal force of the earth’s bulge
3.   The forces of gravitational pressures

In order to visualize the force exerted on the earth by the eccentrically rotating ice cap and the manner in which that force tends to cause the earth to careen, think of a large flagpole to which a rope is attached at the top; it meets the ground at a distance of about 100 yards from the base of the pole. Some men pull on the rope and bend the flagpole. Now, let that flagpole represent the South Pole and you will get a mental picture of the force being exerted to move the Pole from where it is now located.

The analogy must be corrected by noting that the South Pole is not a flagpole, and that the force tending to shift the earth’s axis is not applied externally, as with a rope, but is developed internally, by the centrifugal force of the eccentrically rotating ice mass. This force pushes the earth materials in front and pulls the materials to the rear, since all earth materials are held together by cohesion. The force is centered at the South Pole, which is the south end of the Axis of Figure, because the South Pole is the central point about which the ice cap has grown.

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The "pull on the pole" exerts a pressure to cause the Pole of Figure to move away from the Pole of Spin and toward the Equator. The "pull" is always in a straight line from the Pole of Figure to the Pole of Spin, and the tension of the pull rotates around the Pole of Spin, with the ice mass, once in every 24hour period. The force is not a constant, but varies with the weight of the off center elements of the ice cap and with the speed of its motion, which increases with distance from the Axis of Spin.

When the Pole of Figure moves to a spot twice the distance from the Pole of Spin, the force, or throw, becomes four times as great as it was originally. The "pull" to move the ice cap toward the Equator increases at a rate equal to the square of the distance between the Pole of Figure and the Pole of Spin; simultaneously, the weight of an equal amount of ice on the opposite side of the Pole of Spin and its pull of centrifugal force in the opposite direction are reduced.

Another analogy might be a large spherical balloon with a cage or basket suspended closely below it, floating quietly in the air. Now, imagine that a sudden squall strikes balloon and basket and causes the basket to swing to a horizontal position compared to the balloon. The careening motion of the earth and its ice cap resembles the careening motion of the balloon and its cage.

As a third analogy, consider a globe two feet in diameter fitted closely but loosely inside a barrel hoop, and that the hoop represents the bulge of the earth at the Equator, even though the earth’s bulge does not rise up so suddenly and sharply as the barrel hoop might indicate. Imagine that two nails, at opposite sides of the Equator, support the globe in the hoop which is revolving with the earth of which it is a part.

Now, imagine that you are holding on to the hoop at the nail pivot points, and that the globe is out of balance and therefore starts to rotate on its pivot points, and turns a full 90. This illustrates bow areas, once at the Equator, move to the poles13 miles nearer the center of the earth and how other earth sections move, like an underground wave, as they cross the relatively stationary bulge; and polar areas finally become a part of the new centrifugal bulge while moving 13 miles farther away from the center of the earth.

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As a fourth analogy, consider the planet Saturn with its rings. Let us suppose that the rings are contracted within the body of the planet, and that they correspond to the centrifugal forces causing the earth’s bulge. Let us then suppose that the planet itself careened ninety degrees or one fourth of a full revolution, because of internal forces, but that the rings kept in their original position without careening.

We will then suppose that when the planet’s materials passed through the rings that the materials were elevated as much as thirteen miles, and the rings thus wrecked the surface materials of the planet. That is the way the surface materials of the earth are wrecked when the earth careens, and the materials pass through the earth’s bulge and then rearrange themselves again to conform to the centrifugal force of rotation which causes the bulge, and to the gravitational pressures which cause the earth to be spherical.

We find that animals have been tossed about (mammoths in Siberia) and torn apart (mammoths, bison, and other animals in Alaska), trees broken off at ground level and denuded of limbs (Yellowstone National Park, and elsewhere), and both animals and trees have been buried in the ground which later has become hardpan and rock.

The evidence indicates a super hurricane and dust storm where dirt, stones, trees, animals, and debris were lifted and floated by the air pressure and strewn about by the force of its motion. Effective resistance to the speeds of careenings is offered by the inertia of the earth’s weight and the various kinds of surface resistance of earth, air, and water. Buried animals and vegetation give us clues as to the effects of such resistance to the motion of the air.

The resistance of earth materials and rock formations to the onslaught of the flood waters is indicated by the huge land areas that have been gouged out leaving butts, bluffs, and table mountains where the earth materials did not give way to

the floods; but the surrounding materials of rock and earth have been carried away and scattered elsewhere. We find ancient rock formations cropping out in areas which have borne the brunt of the floods, while in other areas not assaulted by the rushing waters similar formations lie deep in the earth.

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The speed of careening varies with the locations. The maximum is at the Pole of Figure, the minimum at the transient Axis of Careen.

The speed of the ice cap accelerates rapidly during the first 45 degrees of latitude traveled, because then the centrifugal force of its motion would be pulling nearly sideways; but clue to the spherical surface of the globe, this side pull changes to an upward and outward pull. By the time the ice cap has traveled 80 there is very little side pull, but there is a very great upward stabilizing pull, away from the center of the earth. The ice cap becomes a part of the new bulge of the earth.

It seems that the careening motion will stop when the new bulge and the ice cap work in unison to stabilize the globe on its new Axis of Figure. The kinetic energy stored in the careening continents will then appear to have been absorbed by the elevation of land areas, the creation of mountains, and the drift of continents as previously pointed out.

The existence of the Land and Water Hemispheres and of the Great African Rift just as they are presently conditioned fits accurately into the careening globe theory. It also confirms the theory that the Sudan Basin was at the North Pole of Spin during the previous epoch of time, and it confirms the existence of an ice cap which traveled to the present location of the Sudan Basin where the ice melted and left its mark by irregularly radiating, gouged out water courses which are now dry land.

Following the next careen of the globe the present continent of Antarctica can reasonably be expected to become the center of a land hemisphere because of the centrifugal force of rotation which will be created by its weight and speed of motion. This transient force will not only pull Antarctica but also its surrounding ocean floors upward and keep them above sea level, thus creating new land areas.

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The area of the globe now occupied by the Arctic Ocean will probably become the center of a Water Hemisphere like the Pacific Ocean today. What is now northern Siberia, northern Canada, and Alaska, will probably become parts of the submerged ocean floor.

We may learn when the next great deluge of the earth will normally occur if we can determine how much time has elapsed since the latest World Flood, also how long the past epochs of time lasted. This information may be obtained by counting the varves of growing clay beds, and checking the time element there disclosed against similar counts of varved clays of earlier epochs; we can also analyze the speeds of retreat of cataracts and the lengths of the river gorges which they have cut during their slow, creeping retreats; we can investigate the thicknesses of the average strata of earth of our epoch of time and compare them with average thicknesses of the average strata of previous epochs; and, we can check the area covered by our present South Pole Ice Cap against the areas covered by previous ice caps.

The year 1966 has been converted below to the corresponding year in six different calendars. These calendars were established by men whose work represents the most enlightened estimates of their time, especially as to the beginning of their eras:

Year
7,564   Grecian Mundane Era
7,474   Civil Era of Constantinople
7,468   Alexandrian Era
6,679   Julian Period
5,974   Mundane Era
5,727   Jewish Mundane Era

The epoch of time in which we now live has run approximately 7,000 years since the last Great Cataclysmic Deluge of the earth. (The calendars of men begin farther back than 7,000 years.) Our epoch will doubtless last longer than the average epoch, because we have been fortunate in having only one polar ice cap and not an ice cap at each pole. Our most accurate time scales are the river gorges such as those of the Niagara and Mississippi Rivers which have been previously discussed, and the counts of varved clays.

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A four million square mile dent was left by the Sudan Basin Ice Cap. Glacial markings in North America cover about four million square miles; but the area within the lips of the Hudson Bay Basin is about two million square miles. Antarctica covers approximately 5,500,000 square miles; but we have no accurate data, as yet, regarding the dimensions of the bowl containing the ice cap.

In view of the evidence to the effect that the last flood occurred in the fall, it seems safe to say that the next World Flood will occur in the spring in the Northern Hemisphere. The ice cap that caused the last Flood was at the North Pole. The present epoch ending Ice Cap is at the South Pole; thus, the seasons for the floods will be reversed.

Summary of evidence indicating that the last Flood occurred in the fall:

1. Mammoths that lived in or near equatorial areas of the earth, and now preserved in Siberia by quick freeze, are found with short, thick undergrowths of hair. Many animals develop winter growths of hair or fur; in nontropical animals such growths generally are indications that autumn has set in.

2. Grasses found in the stomach of the Bereskovka mammoth had seeds; this is a usual indication of autumn.

3. The mammoth tree found in the Siberian tundra had fruit on it, indicating summer or early fall, if it grew in a temperate climate.

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