Astronauts in orbit view the earth, its atmosphere and the astronomical sky from altitudes ranging from 100 to 800 + nautical miles (160 to 1300 km.) above mean sea level, well above many of the restrictions of the ground-based observer. They are skilled in accurate observations, their eyesight is excellent, they have an intimate familiarity with navigational astronomy and a broad understanding of the basic physical sciences. Their reports from orbit of visual sightings therefore deserve careful consideration.
Between 12 April 1961 and 15 November 1966, 30 astronauts spent a total of 2503 hours in orbit. (see Tables 1 and 2 ) During the flights the astronauts carried out assigned tasks of several general categories, viz: defense, engineering, medical, and scientific. A list of the assigned tasks that were part of the Mercury program is provided in Table 3 to give an idea of the kinds of visual observations the astronauts were asked to make.
As a part of the program, debriefings were held following each U.S. mission. At these sessions, the astronauts were questioned by scientists involved in the design of the experiments about their observations, unplanned as well as specifically assigned. The debriefings complemented on-the-spot reports made by the astronauts during the mission in radio contacts with the ground-control center. In this way, a comprehensive summary was obtained of what the astronauts had seen while in orbit.
This chapter discusses the conditions under which the astronauts observed, with particular reference to the Mercury and Gemini series, and the observations, both planned and unplanned made by them. The
Name | Total Time In Orbit | Flight Designation* |
|
HOURS | MINUTES | ||
Aldrin | 94 | 34 | GT-12 |
Armstrong | 10 | 42 | GT-8 |
Borman | 330 | 55 | GT-7 |
Belayeyev | 27 | 2 | Voshkod II |
Bykovsky | 119 | 6 | Vostok V |
Carpenter | 4 | 56 | MA-7 |
Cernan | 72 | 21 | GT-9 |
Collins | 70 | 47 | GT-10 |
Conrad | 262 | 13 | GT-5, GT-11 |
Cooper | 225 | 16 | MA-9, GT-5 |
Feoktisov | 24 | 17 | Voshkod I |
Gagarin | 1 | 48 | Vostok I |
Glenn | 4 | 56 | MA-6 |
Gordon | 71 | 17 | GT-11 |
Grissom | 5 | 10 | MR-4, GT-3 |
Komarov | 24 | 17 | Voshkod I |
Leonov | 27 | 2 | Voshkod II |
Lovell | 425 | 29 | GT-7, GT-12 |
McDivitt | 97 | 50 | GT-4 |
Nikoyalev | 94 | 35 | Vostok III |
Popovich | 70 | 57 | Vostok IV |
Schirra | 35 | 4 | MA-8, GT-6 |
Scott | 10 | 42 | GT-8 |
Shepherd | 0 | 15 | MR-3 |
Stafford | 98 | 12 | GT-6, GT-9 |
Tereshkova | 70 | 50 | Vostok VI |
Titov | 25 | 18 | Vostok II |
White | 97 | 50 | GT-4 |
Yegorov | 24 | 17 | Voshkod I |
Young | 75 | 41 | GT-3, GT-10 |
Total (for 30 astronauts) | 2503 | 39 | Total Man-flights 37 |
Duration |
Altitude (Statute Miles) |
||||||
Flight | Astronauts | Launch Date | Number of Revolutions | Hr. | Min. | Perigee | Apogee |
Vostok I | Gagarin | 12 April 61 | 1 | 1 | 48 | 110 | 187 |
MR-3 | Sheperd | 5 May 61 | Suborbital | 15 | 116 | - | |
MR-4 | Grissom | 21 July 61 | Suborbital | 16 | 118 | - | |
Vostok II | Titov | 6 Aug 61 | 17 | 25 | 18 | 100 | 159 |
MA-6 | Glenn | 20 Feb 62 | 3 | 4 | 56 | 100 | 162 |
MA-7 | Carpenter | 24 May 62 | 3 | 4 | 56 | 99 | 167 |
Vostok III | Nikoyalev | 11 Aug 62 | 64 | 94 | 35 | 114 | 156 |
Vostok IV | Popovich | 12 Aug 62 | 48 | 70 | 57 | 112 | 158 |
MA-8 | Schirra | 3 Oct 62 | 6 | 9 | 13 | 100 | 176 |
MA-9 | Cooper | 15 May 63 | 22 | 34 | 20 | 100 | 166 |
Vostok V | Bykovsky | 14 June 63 | 81 | 119 | 6 | 107 | 146 |
Vostok VI | Tereshkova | 16 June 63 | 48 | 70 | 50 | 113 | 144 |
Voshkod I | Komarov, Yegorov, Feoktisov | 16 Oct 64 | 16 | 24 | 17 | 110 | 255 |
Voshkod II | Belayayev, Leonov | 18 Mar 65 | 17 | 27 | 2 | 107 | 307 |
GT-3 | Grissom, Young | 23 Mar 65 | 3 | 4 | 54 | 100 | 139 |
GT-4 | McDivitt, White | 3 Jun 65 | 63 | 97 | 50 | 100 | 175 |
GT-5 | Cooper, Conrad | 21 Aug 65 | 120 | 190 | 56 | 100 | 189 |
GT-6 | Schirra, Stafford | 15 Dec 65 | 16 | 25 | 51 | 100 | 140 |
GT-7 | Borman, Lovell | 4 Dec 65 | 205 | 330 | 55 | 100 | 177 |
GT-8 | Armstrong, Scott | 16 Mar 66 | 7 | 10 | 42 | 99 | 147 |
GT-9 | Stafford, Cernan | 3 Jun 66 | 46 | 72 | 21 | 99 | 144 |
*GT-10 | Young, Collins | 18 Jul 66 | 44 | 70 | 47 | 99 | 145 |
*GT-11 | Conrad, Gordon | 12 Sept 66 | 45 | 71 | 17 | 100 | 151 |
GT-12 | Lovell, Aldrin | 11 Nov 66 | 59 | 94 | 34 | 100 | 185 |
Total (of 24 flights) | 934 | 1457 | 56 | ||||
Assigned Observations | Mission Numbers | Equipment | Results |
Observe dimlight phenomena to increase our knowledge of auroras, faint comets near the sun, faint magnitude limit of stars, gegenschein, libration, clouds, meteorite flashes, zodiacal light. | 6,9 | Unaided eye, Camera, Voasmeter Photometer |
MA-6 not dark adapted.
MA-9 saw zodiacal light and airglow. Photographs of airglow obtained. |
Measure atmospheric attenuation of sunlight and starlight intensity. | 6 | Voasmeter photometer | No result |
Determine intensity, distribution, structure, variation and color of visual airglow. | 6,7,8,9 | Unaided eye with 5577-A filter Camera |
Airglow was seen on all flights; was photographed on MA-9.
Filter was used on MA-7. |
Determine danger of micrometeorite impact and relate to spacecraft protection. | 6,7,8,9 | Visual and microscopic inspection | One impact found on MA-9 window. |
Determine intensity, distribution, structure, variation and color of red airglow. | 8,9 | Unaided eye | Detected visually on MA-8; confirmed visually on MA-9 |
Test and refine theory of optics vis à vis refraction of images near horizon. | 6,7,9 | Unaided eye, Camera |
Photographs MA-6, MA-7.
Visual MA-7, MA-9. |
Assigned Observations | Mission Numbers | Equipment | Results |
Determine nature and source of the so-called "Glenn effect" or particles. | 6,7,8,9 | Unaided eye, Camera | Discovered on MA-6; all others saw visually; MA-7 photographs. |
Compare observations of albedo intensities, day and night times with theory and refine theory. | 6 | Unaided eye, Voasmeter photometer | Not obtained due to instrument malfunction |
Photograph cloud structure for comparison with Liros photos. Improve map forecasts. | 6,7,8,9 | Camera with filters of various wavelengths | MA-8 and MA-9 obtained scheduled photographs |
Take general weather photographs and make general meteorological observation for comparison with those made by Liros satellite. | 6,7,8,9 | Unaided eye, Camera | All obtained photographs. |
Determine best wavelength for definition of horizon for navigation. | 7,9 | Camera with red and blue filters. | Successful. The red photographs were sharper; the blue more stable. |
Obtain ultraviolet spectra of Orion stars for extension of knowledge below 3000 A | 6 | Ultraviolet spectrograph. | Spectra were obtained but window did not transmit to expected wavelength. |
Assigned Observations | Mission Numbers | Equipment | Results |
Identify geological and topographical features from high altitude photographs for comparison with surface features as mapped. | 6,7,8,9 | Unaided eye, camera | Photographs obtained on all. Quality best on MA-9. |
Identification of photographs of surface targets by comparison with known geological features. | 8 | Unaided eye, Camera | Few selected ones obtained. Quality fair. |